Talmud

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The Talmud ("teaching," "study") is part of the exegetical literature of historic Judaism. It represents a collection of the sayings of the magisterial interpreters of the Old Testament, especially its legal sections, up until the 4/5th (Jerusalem Talmud) - 7/8th (Babylonian Talmud) century AD. More precisely, it consists of commentary (gemara) on the six major sections of the Mishna, that is, the first written collection of the oral law of Pharisaic-Rabbinical Judaism from the 2nd century AD.

Contents 1 History 2 Outline and synopsis of content 2.1 First Order: Zeraim ("Seeds") 2.2 Second Order: Moed ("Festival Days") 2.3 Third Order: Nashim ("Women") 2.4 Fourth Order: Nezikin ("Damages") 2.5 Fifth Order: Kodashim ("Holy things") 2.6 Sixth Order: Tohorot ("Purities") 2.7 Minor Tractates 3 Notes 4 Texts

[edit] History

According to Rabbinic thinking, Moses, in addition to the written law, received the oral law (oral torah) on Mt. Sinai. This oral law was passed down and discussed through the generations by the teachers of the law since then.^[1]

This development came to an end with the destruction of the temple in 70 AD and the destruction of Jerusalem after the Bar-Kochba rebellion in 135 AD. It is said that at this time the recording of the oral law tradition in writing began. The earlierst form might be the midrash, that is, a verse-by-verse commentary of canonical texts already found in the Dead Sea Scrolls from Qumran (pesher) and that continued well past the age of the Talmud. They are either "halakhic"^[2] (legal) or "aggadic"^[3] (homiletic) in nature.

Another form of organizing especially the legal ("halakhic") arguments that emerged in the 2nd century AD is the mishna, where the interpretation is topical and not determined by the biblical order of the texts. It is now ordered in six orders (sedarim) which are each subdivided in tractates (masechtot), chapters (peraqim), and mishnayot (plural of mishna: "repetitions" or "lessons").

In the following three centuries or so, legal scholars continued to debated the texts of their predessesors, the Tannaites ("those who repeat (what they learned)" or "those who learn")^[4], whose opinions and sayings had been collected in the Mishna. The result of these legal discussions is called the gemara ("completion" (Heb.) or "learning" (Aram.)). The authors of the Gemara are called the Amoraites ("those who say"), of which several generations can be distinguished.

The sayings of the gemara are then said to have been edited by a group of rabbis at the end of the Amoraic period (after 500 AD) in Babylon (under Persian rule at the time), called the Savoraites, from which resulted the Babylonian Talmud; it remains the most authoritative document of legal discourse from this period of time. The Jerusalem Talmud, on the other hand, reflects more narrowly the legal opinions held by Jewish scholars in Palestine; because they were within the reach of the Christian emperors of Byzantium who made Judaism illegal in the early 5th century, the collection of their teachings is not as well edited as the Babylonian Talmud.

The interpreation of the (Babylonian) Talmud in Judaism for legal purposes continues to this day, by the Geonim between the 6th and 11th century, by the Rishonim ("the former ones") between the 11th and 15 century, and finally since the 16th century by the Acharonim ("the latter ones"), with decreasing authority.

[edit] Outline and synopsis of content

[edit] First Order: Zeraim ("Seeds")

11 tractates on prayer and blessings, tithes, and agricultural laws.

• Berakhot ("Blessings") deals with the rules of blessings and prayers, particularly the Shema Yisrael and the Amidah. 9 chapters.
• Pe'ah ("Corner") deals with the regulations concerning the commandment to leave the corner of one's field for the poor (Lev. 19:9–10, 23:22; Deut. 24:19–22), and with the rights of the poor in general. 8 chapters.
• Demai ("Doubtful Produce") deals chiefly with various cases in which it is not certain whether the priestly donations have been taken from produce. 7 chapters.
• Kil'ayim ("Of Two Sorts" / "Heterogeneous") deals chiefly with rules regarding forbidden mixtures in agriculture, clothing and breeding (Lev. 19:19; Deut. 22:9–11). 9 chapters.
• Shevi'it ("Seventh Year") deals with the agricultural and fiscal regulations concerning the Sabbatical year (Ex. 23:11; Lev. 25:1–8; Deut. 15:1–11). 10 chapters.
• Terumot ("Donations") deals with the laws regarding the terumah donation given to the OT priests (Num. 18:8–20; Deut. 18:4). 11 chapters.
• Ma'aserot ("Tithes") or Ma'aser Rishon ("First Tithe") deals with the rules regarding the tithe to be given to the Levites (Num. 18:21–24). 5 chapters
• Ma'aser Sheni ("Second Tithe") deals with the rules concerning the tithe which was to be eaten in Jerusalem (Deut. 14:22–26). 5 chapters
• Hallah ("Glob of Dough") deals with the laws regarding the hallah offering of dough to be given to the OT priests (Num. 15:18–21). 4 chapters
• Orlah ("Blockage (of Trees)") deals chiefly with the prohibition of the immediate use of a tree after it has been planted (Lev. 19:23–25). 3 chapters.
• Bikkurim ("First-Fruits") deals with the first-fruit gifts to the OT priests and temple (Ex. 23:19; Deut. 26:1). 4 chapters.

[edit] Second Order: Moed ("Festival Days")

12 tractates on laws of the Sabbath and the Festivals.

• Shabbat ("Sabbath") deals with the 39 prohibitions of "work" on the Jewish Sabbath. 24 chapters.
• Eruvin ("Mixtures") deals with the Eruv or Sabbath-bound - a category of constructions / deliniations that alter the domains of the Sabbath for carrying and travel. 10 chapters.
• Pesahim ("Passover Festivals") deals with the prescriptions regarding the Passover and the paschal sacrifice. 10 chapters.
• Shekalim ("Shekels") deals with the collection of the half-Shekel as well as the expenses and expenditure of the temple in Jerusalem. 8 chapters
• Yoma ("Day"); called also Kippurim or Yom haKippurim ("Day of Atonement") deals with the prescriptions regarding the Day of Atonement (Lev. 17), especially the ceremony by the high priest. 8 chapters.
• Sukkah ("Booth") deals with the festival of Sukkot (the Feast of Tabernacles) and the sukkah itself; also deals with the Four Species (palm branch, citron, myrtle, willow which are waved on Sukkot. 5 chapters.
• Betzah ("Egg"; so called from the first word, but originally termed, according to its subject, Yom Tov - "Holiday") deals chiefly with the rules to be observed on holidays. 5 chapters.
• Rosh Hashanah ("New Year") deals chiefly with the regulation of the calendar by the new moon, and with the services of the festival of the festival by the same name. 4 chapters.
• Ta'anit ("Fasting") deals chiefly with the special fast-days in times of drought or other untoward occurrences. 4 chapters
• Megillah ("Scroll") contains chiefly regulations and prescriptions regarding the reading of the scroll of Esther at Purim, and the reading of other passages from the law and the prophets in the synagogue. 4 chapters.
• Mo'ed Katan ("Little Festival") deals with the intermediate festival days of Pesach and Sukkot. 3 chapters.
• Hagigah ("Festival Offering") deals with the Three Pilgrimage Festivals (Passover (Easter), Shavuot (Pentecost), Sukkot (Festival of Tabernacles)) and the pilgrimage offering that men were supposed to bring in Jerusalem. 3 chapters.

[edit] Third Order: Nashim ("Women")

7 tractates on marriage and divorce, some forms of oaths and the laws of the nazirite.

• Yevamot ("Brothers-in-law") deals with levirate marriage (Deut. 25:5-10) and other topics, such as the status of minors. 16 chapters.
• Ketubot ("Prenuptial agreements") deals with Judaism's pre-nuptial agreement as well as topics such as virginity and the obligations of a couple towards each other. 13 chapters.
• Nedarim ("Vows") deals with various types of vows and their legal consequences. 11 chapters.
• Nazir ("One who abstains") deals with the details of the Nazirite vow and being a Nazirite (Num. 6). 9 chapters.
• Sotah ("Wayward wife") deals with the ritual of the Sotah - the woman suspected of adultery (Num. 5) as well as other rituals involving a spoken formula (such as breaking the heifer's neck, the King's septannual public Torah reading, the Blessings and Curses of Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, etc.) 9 chapters.
• Gittin ("Bills of Divorce") deals with the concepts of divorce, the legal document and the use of agents in divorce. 9 chapters.
• Kiddushin ("Betrothal") deals with the initial stage of marriage - betrothal, as well as the laws of Jewish lineages. 4 chapters.

[edit] Fourth Order: Nezikin ("Damages")

10 tractates on civil and criminal law, the functioning of the courts and oaths.

• Bava Kamma ("First Gate") deals with civil matters, largely damages and compensation. 10 chapters.
• Bava Metzia ("Middle Gate") deals with civil matters, largely torts and property law. 10 chapters.
• Bava Batra ("Last Gate") deals with civil matters, largely land ownership. 10 chapters.
• Sanhedrin ("The Sanhedrin") deals with the rules of court proceedings in the Sanhedrin, the death penalty, and other criminal matters. 11 chapters.
• Makkot ("Lashes") deals with collusive witnesses, cities of refuge and the punishment of lashes. 3 chapters.
• Shevu'ot ("Oaths") deals with the various types of oaths and their consequences. 8 chapters.
• Eduyot ("Testimonies") presents case studies of legal disputes in Mishnaic times and the miscellaneous testimonies that illustrate various Sages and principles of Halakha. 8 chapters.
• Avodah Zarah ("Foreign worship") deals with the laws of interactions between Jews and Gentiles and / or idolaters. 5 chapters.
• Avot ("Fathers") is a collection of the Sages' favourite ethical maxims. 5 chapters.
• Horayot ("Decisions") deals with the communal sin-offering brought for major errors by the Sanhedrin. 3 chapters.

[edit] Fifth Order: Kodashim ("Holy things")

11 tractates on sacrificial rites, the Temple in Jerusalem, and the dietary laws.

• Zevahim ("Sacrifices") deals with the procedure of animal and bird offerings.
• Menahot ("Meal Offerings") deals with the various grain-based offerings in the Jerusalem temple.
• Hullin ("Ordinary Things") deals with the laws of slaughter and meat consumption (i.e., animals used for every-day as opposed to sacred reasons).
• Bekhorot ("Firstborn") deals with the sanctification and redemption of animal and human firstborns.
• Arakhin ("Dedications") deals mainly with a person dedicating their value to the Temple or dedicating a field.
• Temurah ("Substitution") outlines the laws of what happens if an animal is substituted for an animal dedicated for a sacrifice.
• Keritot ("Excisions") deals with the commandments for which the penalty is karet (spiritual excision) as well as the sacrifices associated with their (mostly unwitting) transgression.
• Me'ilah ("Sacrilege") deals with the laws of restitution for the misappropriation of Temple property.
• Tamid ("Always") outlines the procedure of the tamid (daily sacrifice).
• Middot ("Measurements") describes the measurements of the second Temple.
• Kinnim ("Nests") deals with the complex laws for situations where the mixing of bird-offerings occurred.

[edit] Sixth Order: Tohorot ("Purities")

12 tractates on laws of ritual purity.

• Kelim ("Vessels") deals with a large array of various utensils and how they fare in terms of purity. 30 chapters.
• Oholot ("Tents") deals with the uncleanness from a corpse and its peculiar property of "overshadowing" objects in the same tent-like structure as it.
• Nega'im ("Plagues") deals with the laws of the tzaraath.
• Parah ("Cow") deals largely with the laws of the Red Heifer.
• Tohorot ("Purities") deals with miscellaneous laws of purity, especially the actual mechanics of contracting impurity and the laws of the impurity of food.
• Mikva'ot ("Ritual Baths") deals with the laws of the Mikvah.
• Niddah ("Separation") deals with the Niddah, a woman during her menstrual cycle.
• Makhshirin ("Preliminary acts of preparation") deals with the liquids that make food susceptible to tumah (ritual impurity)
• Zavim ("Seminal Emissions") deals with the laws of a person who has had a seminal (or similar) emission.
• Tevul Yom ("Bathing of the day") deals with a special kind of impurity where the person immerses in a Mikvah but is still unclean for the rest of the day.
• Yadayim ("Hands") deals with a Rabbinic impurity related to the handles.
• Uktzim ("Stalks") deals with the impurity of the stalks of fruit.

[edit] Minor Tractates

• Avot of Rabbi Natan.
• Soferim (Scribes).
• Evel Rabbati deals with laws and customs pertaining to death and mourning, and is sometimes euphemistically called semakhot ("joys").
• Kallah deals with engagement, marriage, and co-habitation.
• Kallah Rabbati an elaboration of the previous tractate.
• Derekh Eretz Rabbah ("the way of the world") deals with deportment, manners and behavior in this world.
• Derekh Eretz Zutta deals with the proper behavior of scholars in the world.
• Sefer Torah ("Torah scrolls") deals with writing scrolls containing the Torah (first five books of the OT).
• Mezuzah ("scroll affixed to the doorpost").
• Tefillin ("phylacteries").
• Tzitzit ("fringes").
• Avadim ("servants").
• Gerim ("strangers") deals with conversion to Judaism.
• Kutim ("Samaritans").

[edit] Notes

1. ↑ The dissenting group, called the Karaites ("the readers (of the written law)") -- they do not accept the Rabbinic notion of oral law and therefore also do not accept the Talmud as a normative collection of that oral law; they also have tighter hermeneutical rules -- represents a small minority group within Judaism.
2. ↑ From halakha, the "path", that is the authoritative prescription of how to "walk," that is, live.
3. ↑ From aggada, "story", that is the Jewish narrative, non-legal exposition of the OT.
4. ↑ "Tannaites" goes back to Talmudic Aramaic; the correspondent Hebrew root is shanah from which also mishna is derived, the collection of the sayings of the Tannaitic sages.

[edit] Texts

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